If someone is ethically challenged and lacks integrity, often they will cheat another out of money in a negotiation or deal. Is the person acting on integrity, stupid or inherently ignorant for allowing themselves to be cheated? If someone gets the better deal and is tricked then the other party is usually considered shrewd, instead of being considered a liar and cheat; why? Is trickery, misdirection, dishonesty and ability to fool others a sign of intelligence? If so, are we are doomed, as smart individuals rise to the top and take advantage of our good nature?

You know, some people believe that the reason humans have such a large brain is so that they can remember all the lies they have told and who they told them too. Those that can remember rise in human society and the primate politics of social groups and thus, have more mates and offspring. Which, bearing in mind the concept of natural selection, the best liars with the biggest brains would eventually fill out the ranks of the human species.

Does the human race therefore, owe their intelligence, as small as it seems sometimes to their unethical nature, lack of integrity and their voids of honesty? Perhaps, in fact, prevailing theory seems to indicate that this is the case. So, if you are intelligent, this would mean that your intelligence is due to your unethical ancestry. Now then, I am not a psychologist or here to psycho-analyze you, but I do have a question for you; How does this make you feel - ha ha ha?

I have recently read a paper that, I believe, has not received the attention it deserves, at least in the media. It is a study of the re-organization of the brain in response to violence. What it is that suddenly triggers a violent behaviour in some individuals is not known with any certainty, but it has long been suspected that exposure to violence leads to increased violence. We have, after all, been repeatedly told that watching violent movies results in individuals who are more readily capable of violence. But why and how?

A paper by Chris Kelly and his colleagues at Columbia Univeristy has far-reaching implications in this regard. They showed volunteer subjects clips of violent films and measured activity in different areas of the brain, using brain imaging techniques. Their results show, in brief, that repeated exposure to violence reduces the intensity of activity in a specific region of the brain known as the lateral orbito-frontal cortex progressively. The implication here is that the more violent movies are watched, the greater the reduction in orbito-frontal activity. This in itself may suggest an adaptation that makes individuals more immune to violence, adaptation being a very common occurrence in the brain. But the study goes further, to show that connections between brain areas must be in a dynamic state, and hence modifiable by experience - in this case the experience of violence - even in adult life. For the orbito-frontal cortex is connected with another brain area - the amygdala - which is known to be responsive to fearful and aggressive faces. This connection seems to be critical in the control of aggressive behaviour. The strength of connections between the two brain areas diminished progressively as violent movies were watched, and led to more aggressive tendencies. The study also strongly suggested that there developed a progressive diminished control over the initiation of violent aggressive behaviour. For there was a concomitant increase in activity within areas known to be critical in motor planning (for aggressive behaviour, among others). This suggests that the connections between the orbito-frontal cortex and yet other regions of the cortex are also in a dynamic state.

It is important to note that the study exposed subjects to violent films over relatively brief periods, each clip viewed lasting seconds rather than hours, as is common for violent movies. Hence, it does not take prolonged exposure to alter strength of connections in the brain, and in this instance, to loosen the inhibition that leads to violent aggressive behaviour.

There is a lesson in this for society, and that is why I am surprised that so little has been made of it by the media. We have discussed endlessly whether the extent of violence shown in Western movies is not damaging our already violent societies. And yet here is a study, which shows that even brief exposure can alter the balance of connections in the brain and tip them in a direction that is not socially advantageous. And there is, perhaps, a problem for legislators too. What if someone can come armed with evidence derived from brain scans to show that the crimes that he or she has committed is the result of altered brain states, induced by watching violent movies? It would be a manner of shifting responsibility. I do not know enough about law to discuss this point, but I should not be at all surprised if defense of this kind surfaces in future hearings of criminal violence cases.

But there is, above all, a great deal of interest in learning that such complex behaviour is held in check by a fine system of balance through the interactions between brain areas and that this balance is so vulnerable - even over very brief periods and even in adult life - to environmental influences. There is much in this work that is of interest for future studies in the neurobiology of aggressive behaviour and violence.

My research on bipolar disorder is ongoing. Not only do I read hard copy and peruse the Intranet, but my life is a never-ending real-time accumulation of information on the disorder. I learn from its presence in my life daily. Recently, however, I came upon new information about bipolar disorder that I have not seen in past research, and I also had conformation that many of the things I have been practicing for a number of years as a way of dealing with my illness are supported by research. I am very encouraged by what I have found.

My sister, Jayme, attended a seminar on bipolar spectrum disorder. I was too broke to attend or I would have, but she came away with lots of notes and a book produced by the speaker, Dr. John D. Preston. Dr. Preston is a professor of psychology at Alliant International University in Sacramento. He has also been on the faculty of UC Davis, School of Medicine. He has written many books on psychotherapy, psychopharacology, spirituality, healing for emotions, and neurobiology. Preston is the author of a chapter in The Encyclopedia Americana entitled Drugs in Psychiatry.

I have been aware from other research I have conducted that there is a need for a revamp of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual's criterion for bipolar disorder (Phillips, 2006). Preston reiterated that a change was in the works for the Manual and that bipolar disorder would be called bipolar spectrum disorder. There would also be an addition of a bipolar III. Bipolar III would consist of highly reoccurring symptoms that dip from mood balance to severe depression. Changing the way bipolar is diagnosed will help everyone involved because it allows for co-morbidity that most often accompanies it. It is often these other ailments that cause instability.

The top three psychological ailments to accompany bipolar disorder are: anxiety disorder at 93%, substance abuse at 71%, and binge eating disorder at 30%. I wasn't surprised at the first two as I have battled both in my long experience with bipolar, but I was surprised to find binge eating to be next in line. And finding that more men than women binge eat was even more surprising.

Next are the medical ailments. Migraine tops the list, followed by obesity, and type II diabetes. I was not really surprised by any of these, though I had thought heart disease might be one of them.

Preston offered statistics on morbidity & mortality that I found interesting. The lifetime suicide rate in those with bipolar is the highest of any other mental illness at 15.5%-19%. The lifespan of someone with bipolar is decreased by nine years and they lose eleven years of good physical health. I feel that these numbers are fairly accurate base on my other research and personal experience with the illness, though nothing is beyond questioning.

Another piece of information I learned about was the way in which antidepressants can have and adverse effect. First there is activation. There is a sudden onset that shows as agitation and anxiety. Then there is switiching. Switching happens in the first 2-3 weeks of taking an antidepressant. It provokes hypomania, mania, and increases not only agitation, but also insomnia and restlessness all within the parameters of depression. An indication of switiching is racing thoughts that prevent sleep. From there comes cycle acceleration. Symptoms of depression exacerbate. I have had this experience many times over the past decade while trying to find medications that would work together to balance out my moods. It is helpful to see a definite pattern so that I can identify it with my own symptoms if they should ever occur again.

I discovered through Preston's information that thyroid plays a large role in bipolar II depression. I often have my levels checked because I am on lithium. What I didn't know is that there is a level call the TSH level. This is a particular way of measuring thyroid that needs to be looked at by the physician if an individual is on lithium and has bipolar II. Normal for the TSH level in most individuals is between 1.3 and 3.0, but in those who are on lithium, the level should be below 1.3. If the level is higher than that it can make depressive episodes very difficult to regulate. My level was at 2.535 last time I had a chemical panel done. I am in the process of getting something done about that. My depressive episodes are very hard to manage, and maintain a somewhat productive lifestyle.

Another thing I learned about has to do with anxiety. When we are under duress, say a bear is chasing us, our hypothalamus produces a chemical called CRF or corticotrophin releasing factor. CRF goes to the pituitary, which sends a message to the adrenal cortex. The adrenal cortex produces cortisol. Cortisol is what empowers us to go beyond our usual levels of endurance. Once we have outrun the bear and are safe, the hypo campus sends a message to the hypothalamus to stop the cortisol. Cortisol is good. It increases our glucose and our cardio output so that we may perform at the level needed. Unfortunately, in bipolar II cases, with every depressive episode, the brain becomes damaged and is unable to shut off the cortisol. When that happens cortisol becomes hypercortisol in the brain and body. Depression is increased dramatically, brain cells or nerve endings are killed, the kind of sleep necessary for rest is impaired, and vascular damage is done. Cortisol pumps through the entire body and if not stopped damages blood veins, causing increase in cholesterol and other heart issues. Because of this there is twice the risk of cardiac death and increased risk of stroke.

Kind of depressing. But I had some very good news. First off, I finally understood statistics saying that those with bipolar have increased risk of heart disease. I wanted to know why. What was the correlation? Well, cortisol damages arteries, and a lifetime of that pumping through the body would cause heart problems. But cell repair can be done. Brain-derived neurotropic factor or BDNF must be restored to the brain for it helps in cell repair, reduces impact of cortisol, reduces major depression, is responsible for neurogenesis, and helps in reducing major depression. It may be restored to the brain by antidepressants, lithium, and exercise. I've been doing all three of these things for years and I didn't even know they were saving my brain. Lithium is the only medication that is proven to regenerate nerve endings, and this information I have not just read about from Dr. Preston (Morgan, 2007).

The process where cell death occurs is called apoptosis. Lithium is the only thing that has been shown to reverse such brain damage. Doctors in the United States are not prescribing it because they have made deals with drug companies to push their newer medications and to down play lithium. Countries in Europe, however, are using lithium more than most other medications because it is so effective with all types of bipolar, including rapid cycling, and especially mixed states. It is very inexpensive. I think I paid 28 dollars for my last prescription versus the 100 dollars I paid for Neuronton. That is not to say that lithium works for everyone but I'm sure glad, way back when, I stumbled into a lifetime use of it. I was thrilled to know I've been doing things right and there is evidence to support it.

People who have bipolar should not do shift work, have time zone changes, or have interrupted sleep. Our circadian rhythms get thrown off very easily and take a very long time to level out. Daylight savings messes me up for a month, and flying to a different time zone is hell. I don't feel good the whole time I'm in the other time zone. It is not worth it to me to even do it. Apparently people who have bipolar disorder have very delicate systems. Balance is not easily attained for us in all areas, and is very easily lost. Sleep patterns can be disrupted very easily and once sleep is lost, it is difficult to maintain control of moods. All this I knew from my own experience but was glad to have some outside information on it.

Much more was addressed in the seminar and book, but what I've outlined here is what has most impacted me. I felt real assurance that I am on the right track. I've spent most of my war with this illness finding the answers on my own and trying things out as a way to see if they were right. When you go to the experts and they have no answers, you still have to go home with your illness whether they help or not. That means you are the one who has to play physician to yourself. I was just never sure if I was doing things rightly or if I was going round to the back door when I could have been going through the front. Now I know I was practicing the best of medicine on myself.

What is dream interpretation? It is the art of deciphering dreams in order to understand and benefit from them.

When it comes to the actual process of dream analysis, there are some fundamental principles and methods that we should be familiar with.

1. Ever wonder who the characters in our dreams are? What are their significance? More often than not, they are symbolic representations of some tendencies and characteristics within the dreamer. For instance: a soldier may represent a regimental or rule-based part of our psyche. In this example, it must be noted that the soldier aspect is applicable even when in real life when the dreamer is of the female gender.

2. Take note of dream symbols. A dream symbol can be any thing or any element within the dream. It can be a character, an action, an object, a geographical feature or even the elements. For indepth analysis, one should have access to a dream symbol database.

2. Take note of the emotions and feelings felt during the dream. This is an important process because the emotions and feelings have the ability to reveal more about the significance and meaning of the dream.

3. Some dreams can forecast certain events in the near future. Usually, these events are personal occurrences. However, at times, it can also foretell regional, national or even global events.

It is always a good idea to document or record our dreams. This practice is good for systematical charting of the process of dream analysis and interpretation.

That's all for the article. Thank you for reading.

Imagine you were asked to program an android, what would you expect to do? You would expect to write endless dialogs of connected sentences, each sentence would be linked to more than one alternative target sentence so that your dialog can be multithreaded, and can be played back in different ways but all in the same context. Then you would create another context and repeat the process until you have a good repertoire of threads. Then you'd expect to test the dialog to see if it makes sense as intelligent conversation. Is this pure fantasy? Not any more, I found a software package that does exactly that, it's called George and Mary (artificialpsychology.com). George and Mary is artificial psychology software which you can download for free, its intelligence is based on placing sentences in motivational scales and linking them, for example sentences like:

1- My opinions may have changed but not the fact that I am right.

2- Spend not need not.

3- The government should protect our culture from foreign TV programming.

4- I will volunteer to monitor the elections next season.

The first will be placed in high positive Emotion scale, the second in slightly negative Feeding, third in low negative SocioSex and fourth in positive Parenting. The scales are borrowed from animal motivation; they are fear-related and easy to understand: the Emotion scale embodies the motivation of self-preservation in the immediate sense, Feeding is to protect your resources, SocioSex is the protection of social partners and clan, and Parenting is defending your progeny. There is also the cognitive divide: Externalizing-internalizing separates a motivational state into opposite reactions: aggressive and fearful. For example "We should protect our culture from foreign TV programming" is internalizing because it expresses fear, while "We should subsidize our TV programming in order to spread our values" is externalizing because it expresses aggression.

Linking of sentences is forward-looking: playing the source sentence leads to the target. And if there are several target sentences then one is selected by chance. If there are many linked sentences then filters can be used in order to narrow down the choices. The linking and editing of sentences is a breeze with the linking editors, which come with drag-and-drop convenience and status display for each target sentence with mouse scroll.

The personalities of George and Mary are dynamic; they change with time so that if George was prompted say 5 seconds after Mary's sentence then the response can be slightly different from a response after 10 seconds. And the natural trend is for states to gradually decay to a steady state value, normally at or slightly offset from zero. Because of the dynamics, there are two parameters to figure out before starting to program the android: the time constant, or speed of decay, and the trigger value, or the state increment each time a sentence is played.

The first step is to write a sequence of sentences with pauses between them. You select the start and link it to a target in a single scale with zero time constant and trigger values. Then you can expand into more scales, and different parameters. When you are done you can sit back and enjoy the chattering of George and Mary, or try to improve the dialog by editing the links and sentences.

Title:

The title of the article that I am picking apart is the Impact of Test Anxiety and Self-Efficacy on Test Performance. This title is easily identified as an equation title because it identifies a relation that will explored in the article. In addition, the variables described are the key elements in the article. The basic content of the article is spelled out perfectly in the title. The article investigates how anxiety and self-efficacy effect test performance. They find that more focus should be on skill deficits and self-efficacy and not test anxiety. The title is very straightforward and tells me exactly what the article is about. I am clearly interested in this subject as I chose this article to be the centerpiece of this assignment.

Opening Points:

The opening of the article summarizes the goals and content of the article. The researchers come out and say exactly what the article is about. The opening is a synopsis as it gives a few bits of information that help get readers up to speed and information from previous studies on the same topic. The opening has a primary point, which is the synopsis point, and then both a lacuna point and a theoretical point, which are both secondary points. Both are obvious as with the lacuna point there is an obvious hole in the research that the researchers are trying to fill and the theoretical point speaks for itself. The opening most definitely gives a clear sense of the goals and orientations of the authors as the first sentence comes right out and tells you what they are researching.

Abstract:

The article does have an abstract, which is the first paragraph that includes 115 words. The abstract can most definitely be decoded as it provides a purpose, problem, participants, design, analysis, results, and conclusion in sequential sentences. The abstract hits those points one sentence at a time and they are easily identifiable. The abstract explains everything clearly and makes the readers want to continue reading the rest of the article.

Research Goals:

The article's research goals are clearly stated. They make it clear that the researchers used predictions to develop the goals and questions. "The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of test anxiety and self-efficacy in cognitive interference on test performance." This is a quote directly from the article and says exactly what the research goal is. The article is most definitely exploring an area that was misunderstood as it shows through its references to other studies that have proven to be incomplete.

Research Questions:

The article gives three research questions to be studied and analyzed throughout the article. The questions are in the form of a hypothesis and are clearly used as predictions of what the researchers will find. The hypothesis' are: high test anxiety would be associated with cognitive interference as well as poor test performance, individuals with low self-efficacy would exhibit cognitive interference and poor test performance, and there will be an interaction between text anxiety and self-efficacy. In my own words I would say that the research question is how do self-efficacy and test anxiety effect cognitive interference and test taking abilities. The research question is basic, as it appears to be fueled by curiosity. The researcher plans to answer the question by giving participants the Test Anxiety Scale and then have them solve a series of anagram problems while providing self-efficacy ratings in between each of the tasks. At the end of the anagram test, the researchers had participants complete a Cognitive Interference Questionnaire.

Research Argument:

The research argument for this article is pretty simple and straightforward. The argument does not waste any time and gets right to the point. It is extremely linear, and is certainly a set-up argument as it gives information that leads up to the research question. The argument gives some information on previous studies and grounds the research question in practical experiences.

Literature Review:

There are twenty-four references listed that the researchers used when doing this study. The journal cites studies referenced that are similar to their study. The section is not super extensive, however it does tell you a little more to help you understand where the article is coming from and what their basis is for wanting to perform this study. The review certainly covers studies in my opinion as I have heard of Bandura and Sarason as well as a couple of others that pop up. I do not know if they are necessarily experts, but I do recognize their names and bits of their work. The literature review covers classic research and not current research. All of the references are from before the year 2000. Also, the references certainly can point me in a direction that I can follow up on this study and learn more about these topics.

Sample:

The sample in this study is 93 undergraduates from a Midwestern university. The mean age of these students was 21.6 years, and 67.7% were female. All possessed between 13-14 years of education. The study uses a convenience sample, as students in the university receive extra credit in their introductory psychology classes for participating. Is this appropriate, sure why not.

Research Design:

The type of research design used in this study is experimental because they manipulate the situations. The study is quantitative and the key variables that the researchers looked for were, test anxiety, self-efficacy, and cognitive interference. The design is pretty straight forward and easy to identify.

Discussions and Conclusions:

The study explains its findings by going through each research question/hypothesis and summarizing what they found. The discussion does not just summarize the main findings, however, but also compares the findings to those in other similar studies. This helps to verify the information and make it a little more concrete. The discussion is very clear as it interprets the main findings. There were not really any perplexing or unexpected results for the discussion to address. The discussion shows that this study compares to many other theories and research results that can help lead to further understanding of the main findings in this study.

Summary and Technical Issues:

This study was extremely interesting to me. It is something that is important and clearly something that can help me when I try to get my students to perform well on tests, even the dreaded government tests that determine the schools funding and how your class compares to every other class at that level. There were not any obvious errors that I picked up on in this study, I think it did a nice job of testing the hypothesis' and I can not think of anything that I would have really done differently. The study is certainly generalizable as it can be completed anywhere with any group. It was conducted in the Midwest, but could easily be done in the south, east coast, west coast, ect. The idea of how realistic this study is may be the only potential problem that I have with this study. How anxious could the subjects be about a test that does not matter and is anonymous. They are receiving their extra credit whether they perform well or not, so I feel as though the anxiety measurements are not realistic.

This project has made me feel so much more comfortable with reading journal articles. Before this class I would have never picked up a journal and read the articles that look appealing. Now I am not overwhelmed by the idea of them and can probably learn a lot about teaching by looking into some more. I definitely came out of this project with a newfound respect for journal articles and an interest in continuing to read and understand them.

Balanced literacy is a theory based on the idea that there are many different learning styles for children who are learning to read. There are many different teaching methods that are effective ways for teaching reading, but alone they do not always deliver for every student. With the variety of learning styles that the students bring into the classroom it is impossible to suggest that one method of teaching would effectively teach each student how to be a good reader. The balanced reading approach bases itself on the idea that a combination of teaching methods used together will teach a greater range of students more effectively.

Lev Vygotsky, a psychologist who focused on cognitive development, viewed learning as being integrated and socially based. This view of learning follows suit with the balanced literacy approach as it focuses on learning to read as a social activity, an integrated activity that requires students to read, write, listen, and speak, and requires engagement in classroom activities. All of these ideas from Vygotsky are found in balanced instruction. Students interact in small groups, integrate the different pieces of reading as listed above, and engage in activities that allow students to interactively learn to read. (Wilkinson, 2000)

Obviously, a major piece of balanced literacy is the instructional techniques. "While many teachers in today's schools are mandated to use prescriptive basal reading programs ... a teacher should know much more to become an effective instructor of reading." (Bukowiecki, 2007) There is more than one way to teach reading to students, and the diversity and variety in the lessons can help students with all types of learning styles and needs learn to be effective readers. Before the instructional techniques can be described there is a critical theory behind reading instruction that needs to be addressed and understood, that theory is the five big ideas of reading.

The five big ideas are the backbone of reading instruction. "The National Reading Panel published its research results and recommendations in a report ... this national report presented five key literacy topics - phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and text comprehension - that should be included in daily literacy instruction" (Bukowiecki, 2007) These five ideas are the individual pieces that teachers need to focus on to promote good readers. "Big ideas are fundamental concepts and principles that help students gain the broadest knowledge within an academic area, such as beginning reading, most efficiently." (Coyne, 2006)

Balanced literacy bases much of its success in the classroom to the five big ideas. "Big ideas focus attention on the most relevant aspects of reading instruction. They also function as anchoring concepts within which 'small' ideas can often be taught and understood." (Coyne, 2006) Through a balance of teaching methods all students are able to actively participate and learn in the classroom lessons, especially at risk students who are struggling with their reading. "Teachers working with at-risk students or students who are experiencing reading difficulties can use the five big ideas as a strategic focus for instruction and intervention because these ideas target critical areas in beginning reading." (Coyne, 2006)

There are many instructional techniques that can effectively teach the five big ideas and develop excellent readers. The first, and probably the most used in reading specialist classrooms, is the basal reading approach. This approach can be seen in classrooms where teachers do reading activities in small groups and in a specified area of the classroom. The basal approach is "based on the assumption that students learn to read by reading, writing, and talking about meaningful topics." (Vacca, 2006) Many different genres of literature are able to be covered through expository and narrative texts. This approach is eclectic and follows suit with the bottom-up approach because it "presents skills to be taught in a sequence, or an interactive program, featuring unedited children's literature selections, strategy instruction, and writing opportunities." (Vacca, 2006)

Another approach to reading instruction is the language experience approach. This approach combines many different approaches, which is obviously a characteristic of balanced literacy. This strategy is "based on the idea that language should be used to communicate thoughts, ideas, and meaning." (Vacca, 2006) A great example of this approach is story dictation. Students are able to create lessons using their own language. Other popular pieces of the language experience approach include, "planned and continuous activities such as individual and group dictated stories, the building of word banks of known words, creative writing activities, oral reading of prose and poetry by teacher and students, directed reading-thinking lessons, the investigation of interests using multiple materials, and keeping records of student progress." (Vacca, 2006)

The next type of instruction is integrated language arts. This method "extends the concept of language experience by immersing students in reading, writing, talking, listening, and viewing activities." (Vacca, 2006) Each of those topics listed in the previous quote should be taught together, rather than as isolated and separate commodities. Students grow by connecting with the combination of imaginative and informative literature. The most important aspect of integrating language arts is "so that students will learn how to use language to think clearly, strategically, critically, and creatively." (Vacca, 2006)

Literature based instruction is the next instructional technique to be discussed. This method accommodates the differences in student's reading abilities while focusing on the meaning, interest, and pleasure of reading. "An important part of classroom life should be reading, reading literature that makes children wonder, weep, laugh, shiver, and gasp." (Vacca, 2006) When students are thoroughly enjoying the material that they are reading they can fully immerse themselves into reading. The students, when using this method, choose their own books which personalizes reading and ensures that they are reading high interest materials. A good strategy used under this theory is based on the idea that "literature can be used as a springboard for writing - children can write different endings for stories or incidents in their own lives that reflect conflicts similar to ones about which they have read." (Vacca, 2006) Another extension of this technique is to allow students to use the same structure of an existing story and write their own following that structure. Students are able to feel control over their learning while advancing their reading and writing abilities.

The final instructional technique to be discussed is technology based instruction. With the changes in technology it should be no surprise that computers and the internet have changed the way that people read and write. Emails are a great tool that students can use to practice reading and writing. The invention of the CD-ROM also created an engaging way for students to practice their reading skills. In the classroom items such as smart boards, electromagnetic LCD pen monitors, and web-cams are changing the way that reading is taught. Word processors are a fun way for students to create texts and practice reading and writing. (Vacca, 2006)

All of these approaches that were pointed out can be used together in the balanced literacy approach to ensure that students are getting everything that they can from the reading lessons. The balance of strategies such as these discussed has been proven to be effective in the classroom. "A clear knowledge of comprehension strategies combined with an awareness of when and how to use them can provide readers ... with an arsenal of tactics to ensure that they construct meaning as they read" (Vacca, 2006) As good as the balanced approach is for students, the downside is that it is quite difficult for teachers.

The balanced approach to teaching could be somewhat overwhelming for new teachers because it requires them to utilize different methods to teach the material. There is a great debate going on about how well teachers are being educated in reading instruction. In an article that surveyed teachers to find education patterns came to a simple conclusion that relates to the balanced approach. "Clearly there was a consensus that an effective preservice reading education would include balanced, practical methodologies across a number of reading related courses supplemented by multiple field experience opportunities." (Broemmel, 2006) This conclusion illustrates the idea that balance is necessary even for instructing adult teachers because it creates a diverse experience that everyone can benefit from.

Balanced literacy creates a diverse and eclectic approach to teaching learning. It utilizes numerous methods to include every student and promote effective and efficient readers by touching on the different learning styles. From struggling readers to advanced readers, all are able to benefit from the balanced literacy approach.

Psychology generally has been described as a "discipline with a long past but a very short history" (Schlesinger et al., 1976, p.8). This popular aphorism is meant to convey two meanings. Firstly psychological problems date back to antiquity and secondly the subject, in the sense of being an independent academic discipline is a recent development. The discipline is however a collection of subfields. Although each has its unique characteristics and requirements, some are intertwined, interrelated or interwoven, the sum total of which might reasonably be called psychological studies rather than psychology (Dandoff, 1987). Although many will argue that clinical or counseling psychology should be a must for pastors, it would be farfetched to state that I am sinking in the quick sand of subjectivity to present a case for development psychology "a branch of psychology which examines the biological, social and intellectual development of people from before birth throughout the life-course" (Cambridge Encyclopedia, p.339). A notable strength of developmental psychology is that it cuts across several areas like attachment, educational psychology or Piagetian psychology.

It must be noted that there is a unique relationship between subjects in psychology. This need not mean that they contradict each other. This could be illustrated by using a different example. It is interesting to consider how from each perspective we might view an emotion such as anger. From a biological perspective, one must study the brain circuits that trigger the physical state of being 'red in the face' and 'hot under the cellar'. Someone working from psychoanalytic perspective might view an outburst as an outlet for unconscious hostility. Another individual working from behavioural perspective might study the facial expressions and body gestures that accompany anger, or determine which external stimuli result in angry responses or aggressive acts. The humanistic perspective might want to understand what it means to experience and express anger from the person's own point of view. Interestingly, the cognitive perspective might study how an angry mood affects our thinking. Someone working from a socio-cultural perspective might explore how anger and its expression vary across cultural groups. It is obvious that the biological, psychoanalytic, behavioural, humanistic, cognitive and socio-cultural perspectives describe and explain anger very differently. They are not necessarily contradictory approaches but six useful ways of looking at the same psychological state. By using all six, one gains a fuller understanding of anger than any single perspective can provide (Myers, 1992). By implication, it is the same with the branches of psychology.

It is imperative to briefly outline the range of psychology to put the discussion in perspective. Experimental psychologists, like many psychologists, rely on scientific methods and experiments to examine behavior. Their research often is conducted in a laboratory. They investigate areas such as sensation, perception, learning, memory and motivation in humans and other animals. Their emphasis is on basic research, that is, knowledge for its own sake without much consideration as to its possible application. Neuropsychological and psychobiological psychologists are interested in biological factors and their effects on behavior. Both neuropsychological and psychobiological psychologists study the brain, nervous system, genes and drugs in relation to behaviour. Neuropsychological psychologists, however, often work hand in hand with physicians to treat disorders related to the nervous system.

Developmental psychologists study the way in which behaviours develop and change during a life span. Often their emphasis is on childhood. Special areas of interest include the development of language, social attachments, emotions, thinking and perception.

Cognitive psychologists study internal mental processes, which include thinking, memory, concept formation, perception, and processing of information. To the cognitive psychologists, behaviour is composed of mental events, internal representations, desires, beliefs and thoughts.

Social psychologists use scientific techniques to examine the effects that people have on one another. They are interested in topics such as co-operation, aggression, affection and group pressure.

Industrial or organizational psychologists generally work with businesses. They are concerned with improving working conditions, raising production rates, and developing decision-making abilities. Many of these I/Q psychologists, as they are called, began their work as experimental psychologists and then became consultants for business or industry.

Educational psychologists study educational systems, methods of teaching, curricula, and other factors influencing the learning process. Their goals are to improve education and to make learning easier and more efficient.

Clinical psychologists focus their efforts on understanding, diagnosing and treating abnormal or deviant behaviours. Efforts are being made to change the law to allow clinical psychologists to prescribe drugs after further training. As the law currently stands, however, prescribing drugs for mental health is still the province of physicians.

Counseling psychologists were traditionally trained to help individuals solve personal, academic or vocational problems that did not stem from serious mental disorders. However, counseling and clinical psychologists often have similar training, and the distinction between the two has become practically nonexistent.

The above notwithstanding, the rest of the discussion presents supportive evidence to the importance of developmental psychology to the pastoral field. Generally in Africa, from the time one is born, one's position in society is to a large degree determined by one's age. We change as we grow older. These changes are noticeable during the early years of infancy and childhood. As each month passes, an infant grows larger and shows dramatic gains in intellectual and social competence. Children undergo great changes from one year to the next. As they approach adolescence, their physical changes bring them closer to adulthood. Yet, for adolescents, there are new developmental changes. Upon the approach of old age and death, individuals will face yet more changes. Developmental psychology therefore studies age-related changes in human behaviour. It is realistically observed that "psychologists know what to expect at different developmental stages and they learn the extent of human growth and development. When Paul observed that he'd be everything to all men in order to win some to Christ, he was in other words saying that since he understood the developmental stages and appropriate evangelistic principles used to produce results in the corresponding groups.

Although it is categorically stated that God invites mankind to reason with Him in the book of Isaiah, how can one realistically speculate the age group He is referring to? Jean Piaget, trained in zoology, was a keen observer of children and works related to him constitute the most comprehensive body of data and theory on mental development in existence. Although some of his conclusions are under serious scrutiny, he proposed that thinking develops in a fixed sequence of stages in children. Characterized schemata appear in specific times. The accomplishments of each stage build on prior achievements. In explaining development, Piaget emphasized heredity. Social and physical development, he maintained, affect only the timing of specific milestones. During the first twenty-four months, babies make sense of their experiences by seeing, touching, sniffing, tasting and manipulating. In other words, they rely on sensory and meter systems. At the stage before concrete operations (intuitive thought), the child is naturally ego-centric or self-centred. How can an ego-centric child understand what it means to reason together? Since he is self-centred, he tends to see the world largely from his own perspective and finds it extremely difficult to put himself in a position of others or even to understand that other viewpoints exist. It is at this stage that the child delivers monologues. Typically, he neither knows nor cares whether anybody is listening. Superficially, the chatter sometimes sounds like a conversation because children often alternate and talk about related topics.

A detailed study of Piaget's stage theory is imperative because inspite of criticisms levied against some of his conclusions, the individual stages would help one in the pastoral ministry to know what the child needs to know about religion. The stage of formal operations enables the individual to develop the ability to understand abstract logic. The adolescence "are capable of explaining some phenomena through a series of logical hypotheses" (Newman and Newman, 1984, p.9). At this mental stage, questions are contemplated, trying to "make sense of life...identity, social realities, religion and the like" (Davidoff, 1987, p.388).

It is evident from the fore-going that developmental psychology is concerned with "the description, prediction and modification of age-related behaviors during the full life again" (Huffman, Vernon and Williams, 1987, p.301). Some developmental psychologists emphasize specific ages (such as infancy, adolescence or old age) while others concentrate on specific areas such as physical or cognitive development. Cognitive psychology generally studies the higher mental processes (memory, action, and reasoning). Jesus knew that the reason why His followers swelled astronomically high was the food He provided for the five thousand men in a previous meeting. Developmental psychologists have set themselves the task of describing changes and trying to understand their causes as they explore their effects (Bernstein, 1988).

A critical analysis of psychological development assists the pastor to understand why it is difficult for a human being within the infancy, preschool, early childhood/kindergarten/middle childhood and even late childhood categories to fully understand the salvation message. Why did Jesus merely bless the children brought to Him but preached vehemently to the adolescent? As a development psychologist, He understood fully well that it is at the adolescent stage that the individual can either experience genuine conversion or may choose to ignore spiritual conviction.

A relatively recent but very vigorous addition to development psychology is the study of sex difference, particularly under the stimulus of social movements which demand not only equal opportunities but also equality of social roles for the sexes. To demonstrate the unique position of mankind in Christ, Paul observes that "there is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ" (Gal. 3:38).

Developmental psychology, in summary, covers infancy, emotional growth, intellectual development, socialization, family structure and even schools (Roe, 1972). This study of "how people change and grow over time" (Wade and Travis, 1987, p.25) is a must for every pastor simply because he has a congregation of people with different ages, temperaments and even abilities. The distribution of talents in Matthew 25 clearly demonstrates that the abilities of people are different and they were given individual responsibilities against their level of development. Since the pastor, a shepherd is expected to respond to the individual and collective need of the congregation, it is incontrovertible that he must be able to look at and respond in all areas and to all ages. In other words, he should be a developmental psychologist.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bernstein, D.A. et al. (1988). Psychology. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

Cambridge Encyclopedia (1994). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Davidoff, L. (1987). Introduction to Psychology. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Book.

Dworertzky, J.P. (1994). Psychology. 5th ed. New York: West Publishing Company.

Muffan, M. Vernon and B. Williams (1987). Psychology in action. New York: John Willey & Sons.

Myers, D.G. (1992). Psychology. New York: Worth Publishers.

Newman, B.M. and P.R. Newman (1984). Development through life: a psychosocial approach.
Illinois: The Dorsay Press.

NIV Study Bible (1995). Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House.

Roe, R.L. (1972). Annual reading in psychology. Connecticut: Dushkin Publishing Company.

Schlesinger, K. et al. (1978). Psychology :a dynamic science. Iowa: Brown Company.

Wade, C. and C. Tavris (1987). Psychology. New York: Harper and New Publishers.

First presented in 1959, after a series of experiments, cognitive dissonance has proved itself in all divisions of psychology. From social psychologists, to personality psychologists, to evolutionary psychologists, cognitive dissonance (CD) is quite possibly the least disputed concept in any social science.

Cognitive dissonance can be described as the uncomfortable feeling brought up in an individual when two or more actions or thoughts are in conflict with each other, or are otherwise incongruent. The feeling experienced by one who is in a position of incongruence acts as a driving force to bring actions and thoughts into alignment with past behaviors as to become congruent.

CD is both valuable for our understanding of ourselves, and easily used to manipulate everyday people going through their normal lives. Without any CD we could be a different person every day, or even every minute. CD slows, or in some cases can even entirely put an end to our re-evaluation of our identities, and our beliefs. If in the past we, for example, publicly professed support for a political candidate, we would be more likely to forgive or even ignore the negative qualities of the candidate, and place an undue level of importance upon the positive aspects of the person.

Many people who understand the mechanics of cognitive dissonance are well known for using this information to manipulate those around them. This manipulative take on CD is shown quite often in popular media, albeit indirectly. One popular internet writer, Slim McDonald, has repeatedly referred to his dubious use of cognitive dissonance on his publication. Some scientifically observable examples of this theory were produced by Robert Cialdini (et. al) in a variety of extremely interesting studies. One example of theses studies involved volunteer participants who were presented with two requests for volunteering, one of which was very easy and one of which was extremely demanding. In the first group the participants were asked to do the latter of the two volunteer tasks. Over 90% of these participants declined. The second group was first asked to perform the simple task (nearly 100% accepted) and then several weeks later were asked to perform the difficult task. This time only 43% of participants turned down the request.

Clearly cognitive dissonance is a powerful theory in modern psychology, and is important to each and every one of us in our daily lives.

Abstract:

This paper was written to show the technique of self-reflection exercises in therapy. The client should write out their major life events as they see them, but in a reflective style to analyse their self image, as part of how they see their life. The therapist in turn can use this type of self-reflecting essay to understand the clients thought processes and perhaps an insight into faulty thinking and behavioural adaptations to life events. The following essay is a true story and in the clients own words. As a therapist or someone interested in psychological thought process and analysis the reader should stay emotionally removed in the first reading. By this I mean read as if you are trying to understand the life-story of the client. In a second reading you should look for the significance in the writer's comments and thought processes. Therapists, counsellors and psychologists may then try to answer the question of how they would treat this client if he came to them for help in understanding his behaviour over the years and how he could seek a more stable life-style. The names of the real people have been removed and substitutes inserted with some re-writing for clarity by the author.

Self Reflections of Love and Suffering

Two thoughts have crossed my mind in the last few days that I feel I should commit to paper before they scatter from my mind like leaves in an autumn wind. The first is my language - it came to me that when I was younger I had two fears about language the first being I could not spell very well and tended to be forced to write a short word that I was confident with, rather than a long word that expressed my meaning better but was fearful that I misunderstood its true meaning or that I could not pronounce or write it correctly. The second was in my speech, I knew I wanted to express myself in extended words but again used restricted language to talk. I knew the words but were afraid to speak them in case I appeared foolish or beyond my station. I think the timidity of language came about because I always felt I was special in someway over those people that I associated with. I think therefore I talked my language down in order to fit in with those who seemed to be my acquaintances. As time has gone by and my education has expanded by University and life experience, I now use longer words and more expressive ones than in my youth. However as a teacher I have always had the knack of talking to students at their level just as I did when young to my friends and associates of the time. I learned journalism when in my early twenties and it taught me to write short sentences with no adjectives or flourish of language, but to tell the story straight forwardly and clear. Later when I become a teacher this helped me to write better papers that expressed my meaning without opinion of fancy. I start this paper with this insight as an example of quiet suffering in life. What follows then is the suffering at the hands of love and relationships.

The second thoughts were about suffering. I have known two women in my life for a long period of time. Millicent my first wife and Joslin my long term partner, both I loved in my fashion but in these relationships I now think maybe I suffered for a long time without being able to articulate exactly why to myself. I as married to Millicent when we were both 20 years old, (for 10 years) in which time she bore me two daughters. Her family were low working class and she herself was very traditional of that society. Her siblings thought of me as pretentious as I wore a tie and sometimes talked about ambition, to which they connected to an inflated ego and talking beyond my station in life. (That is a peculiar way of saying this today but that is exactly how it felt to me at the time). I too come from a working class family but of a higher status in that my parents read, were home owners, had travelled around the world, my father was a veteran of WW11 and my mother an accomplished writer in her day.

Although by the time I had grown to realise my parent's characters, all this was unknown to me and as a youth I had little interest in my parents as do most boys. So why do I say suffering - maybe because I stayed and put up with the place in life that Millicent and her family deemed was suitable for me. The working in retail or sales, the home owner with the mortgage, the two little girls we brought into the world ( my one great delight as they are now grown women and have turned out so well - despite me abandoning them so young.) Later when I went into business for myself with the help of my eldest brother, Jake, I started to break away from the family (my own family) in that I became dissatisfied with my life. Dissatisfied with my future, I felt trapped by my marriage and obligation. I asked my wife for a divorce not with a long thinking process, but almost on a whim, of a time of thoughtlessness and partly to be free. Free to do what exactly I was not sure. Later while going through the divorce I met Joslin. She was from a small village and an insular family with little education or accomplishments. She was seven years younger than me and apart from one liaison with a cousin had no real life experience. However she was far more intelligent than Millicent and far more challenging to me.

Joslin in many ways was perfect for me. We came to believe in many of the same things, we both enjoyed reading, discussing and the country life of walking and nature. Later we became vegetarian's together and animal activists in the sense of our beliefs about animal welfare. However two areas caused vexation and heartache. The first was sexual. Joslin suffered from deep depression, a lack of self-worth and appreciation of her own talents and skills. This caused in turn, her to feel that she was unlovable and could never understand my devotion to her. I loved her deeply for many years (we were together for 18) and worshipped her almost daily. This is not to say we did not argue or have unhappy moments, but over-all we were happy with each other most of the time. Sexually she was not as needy as me. I wanted sex regularly and with some variety in what we did. However it soon came to pass that sex was only on the menu when she was able to face it. She often associated sex with keeping me happy and not something she did for her own pleasure or satisfaction.

It is ironic that in the last months of our relationship she became very sexual indeed. Maybe she unknowingly was having her menopause and found at last her sexuality and wanted to be loved with passion for the first time and more importantly for herself. The second area was a lack of faith by her in me. I had took too many risks with our future in the sense of money, jobs and getting myself into troubles mainly through my weakness to help others and my lack of respect for authority. Even to this day I hate working for others or being at someone's call or expectations. I prefer to be free but his has a high cost which tends to be in security and lack of a meaningful relationship. Maybe this desire for freedom is merely my way for avoiding responsibility but now I am philosophising and looking for excuses rather than reality of the situations.

So why did I start this essay with the words suffering? I think that is what my life felt like, first with Millicent as I suffered the humility of having to kow-tow to her family, their prejudicial small mindedness and finally to the realisation that I was wasting my life and giving up my chance to fulfil what ever life was waiting for me to do. I expect a man like me in the past would have talked about God's destiny for me or a conviction that I was meant to do something great in life. Money has never meant more to me than a means to survive and eat. Food is the same, I eat to live and not live to eat. So many people talk of happiness and money in the same breath, but I have never thought this way. Money is just useful but not essential. People talk of food as something gourmet, something almost religious but to me it is just sustenance, something to enjoy at the moment but not talk about or obsess about to others. I cook for myself as it is expedient and less expensive than eating out. Even the best restaurant in the world is still just a place to eat. So how did my suffering continue after Millicent and onto Joslin?

This is more complex as when I met Joslin I was in my 30's and more aware of myself. I was still in the ambitious stage of my growth and wanted to succeed in my work but still I had a huge hole in my emotions about my future. I always wanted to be famous, as a writer, singer or movies star perhaps, but was this just the normal way everyone thinks and it part of the envy that society puts upon the majority that will never have these moments. It explains the popularity of reality shows, TV talent shows and the like. They give the conceited and the dreamers a chance to realise that fame - even if short lived and often leading to gross unhappiness. However fame for me was not in that way, it was a fame of recognition, a fame of doing something important, something momentous, being a hero, saying something in writing perhaps that stuns the world. This is the fame I sought - in fact still seek. Joslin in the beginning and for many years gave me the faith to try, to study, to strive to achieve. Even when things went badly wrong, scandal, bankruptcy, loss - she still stood by my side through the hard times and we still wanted to be together. As I write these words about Joslin, I realise what a great loss to my life she is now that we are apart and no longer part of each others lives as we once were. However this article is about suffering - suffering in my mind and heart - suffering in my very essence. I must have loved Joslin immensely for I stayed with her through years of depression on her part, the moods, the crying, and the sense of worthlessness she endured.

Yet I never really felt I had reason to complain, she was in every way my partner, my life, my need and my supporter. The reader may ask how such a great love came to be abandoned by me so easily in the end. The answer is partly distance and partly my own need for attention, love and a re-awakening of someone to respect me again. I feel I wore Joslin out in that respect, she had been through too many tough times, to many times she had to support me, believe in me when I let her down by my character of taking risks, of being to trusting, of putting others needs before hers or my own. Alas I feel I broke her faith in me - she started to look at me with less than belief and with less than faith, with less respect.

I know this was my fault. I do not blame her at all. Even though I suffered for her over the years in supporting her bouts of depression, her devotion to her worthless brother, (who often took her money and lied daily to her about most things) her vindictive relatives and the lack of loving from her in the form of sexuality and simple words. To hear her say she loved me was the one thing I prayed for most of the 18 years we were together. To hear those words kept me going. I would have suffered any torment to know her feelings to me. The problem with reminiscing is that one cannot remember clearly all those times she may have told me sweet things as they are covered by the longer days of suffering with her disposition towards life and me. In the latter years she went to University and a great change came over her in many respects. She gained new confidence, began to realise she was smarter than many on her course, and of course she was a student now in her forties and therefore understood the value of the education she was receiving and the wealth in the chance to regain what in youth she had lost in chances.

Today I have been in China for over five years, mostly alone but in a few steady relationships that never really lasted very long. For the past year I have been with a young girl named Elle (Chinese) who I have come to love as you would a child who needs a father. I know the relationship is doomed, our ages are too different, our views are poles apart, and she has the arrogance of youth within her and does not yet see that even the wisest man can be wrong. I cannot fulfil her traditional need for security, wealth and family standing that in China is essential to their feelings of insecurity and need for social acceptance. However for now she provides me with some freedom and a sense of companionship that I feel I need. I like being alone but not lonely. I realise I need women, for sex, for companionship, for self-esteem and finally for my feelings of self-worth. An adoring woman satisfies my need to be wanted, to be looked up too and to be seen as someone important at least to them.

The future is hard to foresee now. I have started a business in China and have many friends here, more than in England. I do not miss England or the people very much. I would like to see my daughters more often but they have a good life of their own and I am not the most attentive father to them. I do feel I need to establish a more firm relationship with a woman - if only to feel secure in myself about the future. I ask myself could I go home to Joslin, throw myself on her mercy, ask her to forgive my absence and be with me once more. I think that is now too late, she is settled in her new life, she has grown confident, and has her education and her freedom. She may be lonely at times but she would see my return not as something wonderful but as a burden and a return to uncertainty. No - I could not ask her to do that for me even if it was something I wanted desperately to do. Why would I go back anyway it would only be to acknowledge another failure in my life? I have started to publish many papers and people are reading my works. Some are about teaching and some about my travels around the world. Maybe the fame I have been seeking all my life is here and now. Maybe just around the next corner is the adoration I always wanted from others? The reality I fear now is that in fact like others before me that I want an end to the suffering of life. The suffering of being with other people. Do not misunderstand I do not want to run away from life or the world but merely to finally find my place. To have a legacy that I can look at and think proudly of myself.

I finish this paper with a thought. I am an optimist and an extrovert, I like admiration and I like freedom to express myself, whether I be right or wrong is not important but the right to say and write what I think and not care about "them" those dissenters of free-thinking who see people like me as dangerous because I do not follow their neat rules and conventions in life. Show me a rule book and I will show you another person's fear.